2026

Ketonen, Elina E.; Kruskopf, Milla; Lonka, Kirsti; Mattlin, Mikael

Both cognitive and emotional factors are critical to engagement in game-based learning. However, few studies provide evidence of the influence of games on learning from an emotional perspective. Epistemic emotions like curiosity, surprise and confusion are especially relevant because they directly relate to the knowledge-related aspects of learning, cognitive processes and knowledge construction (e.g. Muis et al., 2015). The present study examined the epistemic emotions of political science students (N=22) in an international relations course utilising the board game Diplomacy to enhance the learning experience. Students’ epistemic emotions were measured repeatedly after every course session and analysed using a processoriented intra-individual approach. The within-person analyses (N=212) showed that game sessions increased all epistemic emotions (curiosity, enjoyment, surprise, confusion, anxiety and frustration) except boredom compared to lectures. Moreover, during the course, curiosity, enjoyment, confusion and anxiety decreased, boredom increased, and surprise and frustration remained constant. However, the individual differences in these trajectories indicated that students reporting a decrease in anxiety, surprise and enjoyment achieved better learning outcomes than those exhibiting a more stable emotional trend. The findings suggest that students’ epistemic emotions can be affected by instructional choices, such as the integration of game elements. Adding game features can trigger particularly positive activating emotions among students but can also provoke negative affect. Students who appeared to manage high pressure and uncertainty by controlling their anxiety levels also achieved better cognitive results, whereas pure enjoyment of the game did not guarantee positive learning outcomes. The uniqueness of individual emotional trajectories and their relationship to learning outcomes suggests that the conclusions based on the group-level findings are not applicable to all individuals.